Szmalcownik
Szmalcownik ; in English, also spelled shmaltsovnik, plural sometimes given as szmalcowniki) is a pejorative Polish slang expression that originated during the Holocaust in Poland in World War II and refers to a person who blackmailed Jews who were in hiding, or who blackmailed Poles who aided Jews during the German occupation. By stripping Jews of their financial resources, blackmailers added substantially to the danger that Jews and their rescuers faced and increased their chances of getting caught and killed.
In summer of 1942, Żegota, a Polish underground organization dedicated to aiding the Jews, requested that the Polish Underground State intensifies its efforts to stop the "blackmailer plague". From the summer of 1943 Home Army started carrying out death sentences for szmalcowniks in occupied Poland, though these weren't a priority for the underground. In Warsaw alone some 3,000-4,000 people acted as blackmailers and informants; by war's end, the Home Army executed less than 20. Nonetheless, while the executions did not eliminate the problem of blackmailers, they "reduced it so much" that it was no longer an issue of "primary importance" to Żegota. A number of szmalcowniks were tried in Poland after the war.
The phenomenon of blackmailing Jews during the Holocaust was not unique to Poland, and occurred throughout occupied Europe.
Etymology
The term comes from the German word Schmalz and indicated the blackmailer's financial motive, i.e. the bribe to be paid by the victim. It originated in the criminal jargon. Literary, therefore, szlamcownik can be translated as a greasy-palmer. In English, the term is often used as a synonym of blackmailer, but in Polish works, based on the wartime parlance, there is sometimes a difference between szmalconwiks, who acted more like one-time muggers, accosting their victims on the street and demanding one time bribe, to the more dangerous blackmailers, which tracked their victims to their hiding places and demanded everything they had. The term is also sometimes described in English as a bounty hunter, as Germans offered financial rewards, described as bounties, for turning in the Jews.Demographics
Szmalcowniks came from diverse backgrounds. About three quarters were Poles, but members of the German, Ukrainian and Lithuanian minorities - and in some cases even Jews - were also engaged in blackmailing. Most known szmalcowniks were men aged 25-40. Some were collaborating with the Gestapo or other German officials, or with the Polish Blue Police, in addition to blackmailing. Recent research suggests that contrary to popular belief, szmalcowniks were not necessarily habituated criminals before the war; out of 200 individuals tried by German courts in Warsaw between 1940-1943, only 11 involved pre-war criminals.According to Jan Grabowski, "there are mentions of szmalcowniki in all of the accounts by Jews hiding on the 'Aryan side' of Warsaw. The sheer number of mentions is a direct evidence of the prevalence of this practice." Gunnar S. Paulsson estimates the total number of szmalcowniks in Warsaw alone at "as high as 3–4 thousand", targeting the Jewish community of about 28,000 and their gentile helpers, who numbered about 70,000-90,000, with the remaining few hundred thousands of the city's inhabitants remaining passive in this struggle.
Effects
From 1941 onwards, Jews who were found without a valid pass outside ghettos and camps were subject to death penalty, as were any individuals aiding them. German issued monetary rewards, for turning in the hiding Jews. Szmalcowniks would extort Jews for money and valuables, and after the victims were robbed of everything of value, they would often be turned in for the bounty. Many hiding Jews were easy to recognize by distinct physical features, different accent and vocabulary, culinary preferences, lack of knowledge about Polish Christian customs, and even excessive purchase of food supplies. At the beginning of the German occupation, szmalcowniks were satisfied with a few hundred zloty, but after the death penalty for hiding Jews was introduced, the sums rose to several hundred thousand zlotych. The activities of szmalcowniks intensified during the era of the liquidation of the ghettos.The damage that those individuals did to the Jewish community was substantial. By stripping Jews of assets they needed to survive, harassing rescuers, raising the overall level of insecurity and forcing hidden Jews to seek safer accommodations, blackmailers added substantially to the danger that Jews and their Polish rescuers faced, and increased their risk of capture and death.
In some cases the szmalcownik gangs would blackmail each other, or even people working with Gestapo agents, which would lead to the arrest of one group. Approximately 200 such szmalcowniks were prosecuted by German Special Court in Warsaw for bribing German soldiers, pretending to be Gestapo agents and forging identity papers. The German courts penalties usually ranged from few months to few years of imprisonment, although in some cases Gestapo was known to carry out summary executions; for example two szmalcowniks were executed for falsely accusing a German lawyer of being a Jew. In general, however, German authorities were not concerned with the activities of szmalcowniks, which instead they encouraged.
Countermeasures
The Polish Underground State considered collaboration a treasonous act punishable by death, and attempted to counteract the activities of szmalcowniks and informers from the beginning of the German occupation. One way in which it tried to hinder such activities was by publishing public condemnations in posters, leaflets and the underground press, though these rarely addressed crimes against Jews specifically. The first announcement by the Directorate of Underground Resistance that crimes against Jews and Poles will be punishable by death was made on September 17 1942. After the founding of Żegota later that month, its representatives repeatedly appealed to the Underground State to act against blackmailers, but for the most part were answered that "nothing could be done" because such acts would require a judicial process, which was said to be impossible to conduct during the occupation. Żegota's request for an explicit condemnation of anti-Jewish activities was answered seven months later, on March 18 1943. The communist Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego issued a similar decree more than a year later, on August 31 1944.Executions carried out by Polish underground were approved by an underground court, which was meant to ensure that no innocents would be killed by accident. Identifying individual blackmailers was difficult, as they were often anonymous; gang leaders were easier to identity; though they were identified and punished much more often then street muggers, for which this was more difficult. Some executions required considerable planning, since carrying arms carried significant risks. The first execution of a szmalcownik by the Home Army took place on March 4 1943, and the next day Jewish Fighting Organization announced that it had executed five Jewish collaborators. There is at least one documented incident in which communist resistance fighters of Gwardia Ludowa in Warsaw executed one or more szmalcowniks in 1943. In early 1944, after Żegota lobbied to speed up the process, the Directorate authorized executions at the discretion of local resistance authorities, and in 1943-1944 executions of szmalcowniks became more frequent. Approximately 30% of the Special Courts executions in Warsaw were of szmalcowniks, but the exact number is unknown; Dariusz Libionka estimated the number of szmalcowniks executed in Warsaw at under twenty. Michael Marrus notes, however, that some 150 executions of informers that took place by April 1943, albeit not in a response to blackmailing, nevertheless had an positive effect on the phenomenon. He further claims that "more death sentences than reported were being carried out". Overall, concludes Jan Grabowski, "engaging in blackmailing did not entail a significant risk... was not a priority , and the few sentences handed down by the underground courts usually involved not only Jews, but also Poles."
The extent and effectiveness of the countermeasures is subject to debate. According to Samuel Kassow, who analysed the Emanuel Ringelblum Archives, "even in the relatively simple matter of suppressing the blackmailers and informants who plagued Jews on the Aryan side, the underground state could not be bothered." According to Joseph Kermish the underground's proclamations were left mostly "on paper", and the number of executions remained low, and Joanna Drzewieniecki notes that "new research seems to indicate that Underground trials and executions did not take place as often and nor were they as much of a deterrent as historians once thought". However Michael Marrus states that while the executions did not eliminate the problem of blackmailers, they "reduced it so much" that it was no longer an issue of "primary importance" to Żegota.